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Global environmental consequences of tourismAbstractIn 2000, almost 700 million international tourist arrivals were counted worldwide. Even though a global activity of this scale canbe assumed to have a substantial impact on the environment, its consequences have never been assessed and quantified. In thiscontribution, five major aspects of the leisure-related alteration of the environment are investigated: (1) the change of land cover andland use, (2) the use of energy and its associated impacts, (3) the exchange of biota over geographical barriers and the extinction ofwild species, (4) the exchange and dispersion of diseases, and (5), a psychological consequence of travel, the changes in theperception and the understanding of the environment initiated by travel.r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.Keywords: Biodiversity; Climate change; Energy; Sustainable tourism; Travel1. IntroductionEcosystems provide services essential to humanity,which in short can be described as supporting life,supplying materials and energy, absorbing waste products,and providing culturally valuable assets (cf.Daily, 1997, 2000). Maintaining ecosystem integritymust thus be a primary human goal, which is neverthelessdifficult to achieve because little is known aboutthe temporal and spatial scales over which ecosystemsshould be safeguarded, the limits to replace theirfunctions, or the levels of stress they can endure ascomplex, interacting, and interdependent systems (Costanza,2000). In the light of these uncertainties, it isimportant to understand the contribution of humanactivities to ecosystem change, and how these activitiesmight reduce the ecosystems’ capacity to maintain acontinuous flow of services.Tourist activities impact directly and indirectly onecosystems. Coral reefs, for instance, can be damagedthrough trampling, buying, or collecting reefs species (a你好，我有相关论文资料可供参考，需要的话请加我，我发给你，497267666，谢谢。
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